Problem solving
Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills (Goldstein & Levin, 1987). It occurs if an organism or an artificial intelligence system does not know how to proceed from a given state to a desired goal state. It is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping. Overview The nature of human problem solving methods has been studied by psychologists over the past hundred years. There are several methods of studying problem solving, including; introspection, behaviorism, simulation and computer modeling, and experiment. Beginning with the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany (e.g. Duncker, 1935), and continuing through the 1960s and early 1970s, research on problem solving typically conducted relatively simple, laboratory tasks (e.g. Duncker's "X-ray" problem; Ewert & Lambert's 1932 "disk" problem, later known as Tower of Hanoi) that appeared novel to participants (e.g. Mayer, 1992). Various reasons account for the choice of simple novel tasks: they had clearly defined optimal solutions, they were solvable within a relatively short time frame, researchers could trace participants' problem-solving steps, and so on. The researchers made the underlying assumption, of course, that simple tasks such as the Tower of Hanoi captured the main properties of "real world" problems, and that the cognitive processes underlying participants' attempts to solve simple problems were representative of the processes engaged in when solving "real world" problems. Thus researchers used simple problems for reasons of convenience, and thought generalizations to more complex problems would become possible. Perhaps the best-known and most impressive example of this line of research remains the work by Newell and Simon (1972). Europe In Europe, two main approaches have surfaced, one initiated by Donald Broadbent (1977; see Berry & Broadbent, 1995) in the United Kingdom and the other one by Dietrich Dörner (1975, 1985; see Dörner & Wearing, 1995) in Germany. The two approaches have in common an emphasis on relatively complex, semantically rich, computerized laboratory tasks, constructed to resemble real-life problems. The approaches differ somewhat in their theoretical goals and methodology, however. The tradition initiated by Broadbent emphasizes the distinction between cognitive problem-solving processes that operate under awareness versus outside of awareness, and typically employs mathematically well-defined computerized systems. The tradition initiated by Dörner, on the other hand, has an interest in the interplay of the cognitive, motivational, and social components of problem solving, and utilizes very complex computerized scenarios that contain up to 2,000 highly interconnected variables (e.g., Dörner, Kreuzig, Reither & Stäudel's 1983 LOHHAUSEN project; Ringelband, Misiak & Kluwe, 1990). Buchner (1995) describes the two traditions in detail. To sum up, researchers' realization that problem-solving processes differ across knowledge domains and across levels of expertise (e.g. Sternberg, 1995) and that, consequently, findings obtained in the laboratory cannot necessarily generalize to problem-solving situations outside the laboratory, has during the past two decades led to an emphasis on real-world problem solving. This emphasis has been expressed quite differently in North America and Europe, however. Whereas North American research has typically concentrated on studying problem solving in separate, natural knowledge domains, much of the European research has focused on novel, complex problems, and has been performed with computerized scenarios (see Funke, 1991, for an overview). USA and Canada In North America, initiated by the work of Herbert Simon on learning by doing in semantically rich domains (e.g. Anzai & Simon, 1979; Bhaskar & Simon, 1977), researchers began to investigate problem solving separately in different natural knowledge domains - such as physics, writing, or chess playing - thus relinquishing their attempts to extract a global theory of problem solving (e.g. Sternberg & Frensch, 1991). Instead, these researchers have frequently focused on the development of problem solving within a certain domain, that is on the development of expertise (e.g. Anderson, Boyle & Reiser, 1985; Chase & Simon, 1973; Chi, Feltovich & Glaser, 1981). Areas that have attracted rather intensive attention in North America include such diverse fields as: *Reading (Stanovich & Cunningham, 1991) *Writing (Bryson, Bereiter, Scardamalia & Joram, 1991) *Calculation (Sokol & McCloskey, 1991) *Political decision making (Voss, Wolfe, Lawrence & Engle, 1991) *Managerial problem solving (Wagner, 1991) *Lawyers' reasoning (Amsel, Langer & Loutzenhiser, 1991) *Mechanical problem solving (Hegarty, 1991) *Problem solving in electronics (Lesgold & Lajoie, 1991) *Computer skills (Kay, 1991) *Game playing (Frensch & Sternberg, 1991) *Personal problem solving (Heppner & Krauskopf, 1987) *Mathematical problem solving (Polya, 1945; Schoenfeld, 1985) *Social problem solving (D'Zurilla & Goldfreid, 1971; D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982) *Problem solving for innovations and inventions: TRIZ (Altshuller, 1973, 1984, 1994) Characteristics of difficult problems As elucidated by Dietrich Dörner and later expanded upon by Joachim Funke, difficult problems have some typical characteristics that can be summarized as follows: *Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation) **commencement opacity **continuation opacity *Polytely (multiple goals) **inexpressiveness **opposition **transience *Complexity (large numbers of items, interrelations, and decisions) **enumerability **connectivity (hierarchy relation, communication relation, allocation relation) **heterogeneity *Dynamics (time considerations) **temporal constraints **temporal sensitivity **phase effects **dynamic unpredictability The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of these characteristics that are encountered. In reform mathematics, greater emphasis is placed on problem solving relative to basic skills, where basic operations can be done with calculators. However some "problems" may actually have standard solutions taught in higher grades. For example, kindergarteners could be asked how many fingers are there on all the gloves of 3 children, which can be solved with multiplication. 2007 Draft, Washington State Revised Mathematics Standard Problem-solving techniques * Abstraction: solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system * Analogy: using a solution that solved an analogous problem * Brainstorming: (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum is found * Divide and conquer: breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems * Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption * Lateral thinking: approaching solutions indirectly and creatively * Means-ends analysis: choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal * Method of focal objects: synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new * Morphological analysis: assessing the output and interactions of an entire system * Reduction: transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist * Research: employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems * Root cause analysis: eliminating the cause of the problem * Trial-and-error: testing possible solutions until the right one is found # Working Backwards (Halpern,2002) # Forward-Looking Strategy (Halpern, 2002) # Simplification (Halpern, 2002) # Generalization (Halpern, 2002) # Specialization (Halpern, 2002) # Random Search (Halpern, 2002) # Split-Half Method (Halpern,2002) Problem-solving methodologies * Eight Disciplines Problem Solving * GROW model * How to solve it * Kepner-Tregoe * Southbeach Notation * PDCA * RPR Problem Diagnosis * TRIZ (Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, "theory of solving inventor's problems") See also * Abductive reasoning * Anagram problem solving * Analogy * Artificial intelligence * Brainstorming * Common sense * Common sense reasoning * Cognitive hypothesis testing * Cognitive processes * Creative problem solving * Decision making * Declarative knowledge * Deductive reasoning * Divergent thinking * Educational psychology * Executive function * Expert systems * Facilitation * Gagné's hierarchy of learning * General problem solver * Group problem solving * Inductive reasoning * Innovation * Intelligence amplification * Inquiry * Kepner-Tregoe * Morphological Analysis * Newell, Allen * PDCA * Problem-solving in psychotherapy * Problem Solving Therapy * Problem Statement * Reasoning * RPR Problem Diagnosis * Simon, Herbert * Soar (cognitive architecture) * Thought * Transdisciplinary Studies * TRIZ * Troubleshooting * Wicked problem Notes References * * }} * }} * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Worldcat Library Catalog * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * Computer Skills for Information Problem-Solving: Learning and Teaching Technology in Context * Problem solving-Elementary level * CROP (Communities Resolving Our Problems) * Teach Kids Math With Model Method * The Altshuller Institute for TRIZ Studies, Worcester, MA * Problem Solving Skills Category:Problem solving Category:Cognition category:Cognitive processes Category:Educational psychology Category:Neuropsychological assessment